Plastic is complex.
And articles about its effects are like the microplastics it breaks down into, everywhere. What worries me about plastic is how fast we produce it, how easily we discard it, how little we know of its potentially harmful effects, and how quickly it has spread to all corners of our world, including our bodies, even potentially changing the weather.
Here's how much we produce globally by year since 1950.
So I did some research to try to understand if plastic poses a risk, how big it might be, what solutions are being worked on, and what actions I can take to limit my own exposure.
But first a brief history of plastics
1869 John Wesley Hyatt invents the first polymer to replace ivory for billiard balls thus protecting elephants from slaughter.
1907 Leo Baekeland invents Bakelite as an insulator for electric wires which is also durable, heat resistant, and easy to mass produce.
1933 Polyethylene is discovered by accident by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett at Imperial Chemical Industries.
1941 The US enters World War II and inventions like nylon used for parachutes, ropes, body armor, and plexiglas, an alternative to glass for airplane windows gain traction.
1945 World War II ends and plastic enters new markets in consumer products, packaging, and furniture beating traditional materials on price and performance.
1960 Scott Cup’s are advertised as available at ‘toss-away’ prices to encourage one-time use although the containers are almost indestructible.
1974 Soda companies introduce plastic soda bottles. Soon, plastic litter proliferation forces the plastic industry to push recycling as a solution to waste of one-time use.
1988 The Society of Plastics Industry introduce plastic label and categorization system for recycling.
1997 Charles Moore discovers the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) after competing in a yachting race.
2000s Efforts to scale production of biodegradable plastics like PHA, discovered in 1926, and PLA, in 1932, were made to reduce reliance on fossil-fuel based plastics.
Where's the harm in plastics?
The court of public opinion is loud and clear. It’s bad and we must minimize its use. But as I’m writing this on a plastic keyboard, on a computer with plastic parts, sitting on a plastic chair wearing clothing with plastic fibers, I wonder, how bad is it really, and what are our alternatives?
Plastic Manufacturing
99% of all plastics are made from fossil fuels in an energy intensive process which emits carbon. According to an article from the Guardian in 2019 plastic represented 5% of global carbon emissions and if we are to stay within the carbon emissions associated with a 1.5°C increase in temperature and meet the growing demand for plastics by 2050 plastic production may make up 21-31% of all CO2 emissions.
This 5% estimate came from a study excluding CO2 emissions from agriculture and land usage. This typically account for 30-35% of global CO2 emissions. This would suggest plastic share is closer to 3.5%.
However, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) AR6 WGIII 2022 report Mitigation on Climate Change Box 11.2 detailing Plastics and Climate change presents an estimate of production 1085 MtCO2e, downstream compounding and conversion 535 MtCO2e, end-of-life treatment 161 MtCO2e and a CAGR of 8.4% for 2015. Estimates for following 4 years with linear growth are presented below. According to the World Resources Institute world greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 amounted to 49.8 GtCO2e. This corroborates a plastic lifecycle share 5% of total.
Year | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 |
Production | 1.09 | 1.18 | 1.27 | 1.38 | 1.50 |
Conversion | 0.54 | 0.58 | 0.63 | 0.68 | 0.74 |
End-of-life | 0.16 | 0.17 | 0.19 | 0.21 | 0.22 |
Total | 1.78 | 1.93 | 2.09 | 2.27 | 2.46 |
Estimated Greenhouse Gas Emissions from plastics in Gt (gigatonnes) from Box 11.2 IPCC AR6 WGIII 2022 report.
Beyond the impact on climate, the plastic manufacturing plants produces local pollutants such as ozone-producing nitrogen oxide (NOX), respiratory irritants called volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and carcinogens like benzene and vinyl chloride in addition to unreported emissions from equipment failures, chronic leaks, and accidents. These emissions harms its employees and community residents evidenced by higher rates of cancer and other diseases.
Plastic Use
Some estimates claim 16,000 chemicals are used in plastic production. Some are toxic. One example is phathalates, now known as forever chemicals, used in clear food packaging, personal care products, toys, detergents, vinyl flooring, furniture, shower curtaints, etc.. They represent a large group of structurally similar chemicals, some of which are toxic. They make plastic more flexible and harder to break but have been connected with a large number of health issues in children and adult males including asthma, cancer, low sperm counts, cardiovascular problems, and undescended testes in baby boys. They have also been linked to premature births. The Consumer Product Safety Commission have banned some but not the FDA.
Polystyrene, a lightweight material popular as food packaing which breaks into very fine pieces making it hard to collect and recycle, has been linked to cancer and dementia.
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical developed in the 1950s used in many hard plastics such as water bottles, baby bottles, dental fillings, sealants, medical devices, sport equipment and food storage items as well as in epoxy resins to coat the inside of metal cans and water supply lines. Studies in animals have shown that it may be toxic. It has also been demonstrated to seep into the food it is protecting. In April 2023 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reduced the tolerable daily intake (TDI) dose 20,000 times compared to its temporary assessment from 2015 and concluded that all European consumers across all age groups likely exceed the new TDI. The European Commission has since proposed to ban BPA in food packaging.
Plastic End-of-life
All plastic breaks down, it's just a matter of how long it takes, what it turns into, and what problems it may cause along the way. 99% of plastics are non-degradable meaning it does not naturally turn into water and CO2 but break down to smaller and smaller plastic pieces eventually becoming microplastics (< 5 mm) and nanoplastics (< 0.001 mm).
Biodegradable plastics break down faster than standard plastic but the conditions and into what constituents has not been uniformly defined allowing it to be used for plastics like polyethylene (PE) which does not decompose but breaks down into microplastics.
In 2019 biodegradable plastics made up an estimated 1% of all plastics made. Recycling rates vary significantly between geographical regions but MIT estimates that 9% of all plastics have been recycled. Recycling is hard because plastics are made up from many different chemicals, which impact the recycling process and can contaminate other plastics requiring separation. They also need to be clean where contaminated plastics can clog up machines and impact the output. These issues raises the recycling cost making it uneconomical compared with producing virgin plastic.
The rest ends up in nature, landfills, or is burned. Burning emits CO2 and may also release dangerous toxins like bisphenols and phthalets that can disrupt neurodevelopment, endocrine and reproductive functions.
Microplastics easily end up in the the water and food supply where organisms mistake it for food causing starvation and injuries that affect their ability to swim or fly.
A 2024 study showing human intake of microplastics through inhalation and ingestion comparing 109 countries showed that Indonesians eat the most, consuming on average 15g of microplastics per month, with a majority coming from aquatic sources like seafood. That's a 59x increase over 30 years and 6x more than the the US average of 2.4g. Other Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia, and the Philipines were just behind. It's driven by industrialization, inadequate waste management, and significant aquatic diets. China, Mongolia, and the UK topped the lists for inhaled microplastics.
How does it end up in our food?
4 ways:
Eaten by wild animals
Fed to domesticated animals
Eaten by humans from food ingredients
Eaten by humans from plastic food packaging and cutlery
Wildlife was first observed eating plastic in 1966 and since then more than 700 species, including seabirds, fish, turtles, and marine animals have been confirmed to eat palstics according to NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Passive feeders, animals that filter their food from water or soil, may eat it unintentionally, while active feeders, who search and capture their food, may ingest it through their pray, or by mistake when it resembles their food or gets attached to it.
An article from the Guardian in 2018 reports UK feed suppliers using discarded food turning it into animal feed. The systems are unable to remove all the plastic wrappings so the Food Standard Agency allows for 0.15% plastic concentration. This concentration generated visible debris of plastic in the feed. A 2022 Dutch study found microplastics in livestock blood, milk, feed and meat and concluded that the feed pellets, along with water and air, are likely exposure routes for plastic in livestock.
A 2023 research paper review aggregating findings from 136 studies on microplastics in food, water and beverages concludes detection in salt, sugar, and honey is well documented and supported by multiple studies while only one study showed presence in fruit, vegetables and seaweeds and urges further study.
It is hard to find research on this effect but a 2022 study on disposable plastic materials release of microplastics in hot water showed that hot water soaking released a million submicron and microsized particles per mililiter of leachate and increasing soaking time or abrasion intensity increases particles released. Another study showed that plastic teabags released 11.6 billion microplastics and 3.1 billion nanoplastics after steeping them in 95°C hot water.
Am I safe if I only drink bottled water?
No. A 2024 study showed an average of 240,000 plastic particles per litre, 90% nanoparticles, the rest microparticles.
It's no wonder scientists have found plastic in the blood, heart, brain, gallstones, digestive system, lungs, liver, kidney, spleen, testes, penises, and the human placenta. It has been linked to cancer, dementia, blood clots, heart-attack, stroke, and death. One particularly concerning insight from a 2024 study was the discovery of microplastic in the brain of mice having passed the blood-brain barrier where doctors are worried it may carry bacteria and viruses on its surface in addition to the chemicals used to make it.
There are still many uncertainties but we can be forgiven for feeling concern having experienced other events where industry and government failed to disclose, identify, and regonize the dangers of materials with severely harmful effects such as asbestos, paint with lead, and toxic PFAS.
So what actions are taken to curb plastic waste?
Governments
Many cities, and countries, have taken action to ban single-use plastics, but enforcement success varies. According to a 2020 BBC article, China banned non-degradable bags in major cities end of 2020 and all cities and towns 2022. But where I live, in Shenzhen, they are still offered for free at supermarkets. Europe is leading the way with cities in the US and Asia following suit.
Colorado estimates to have eliminated more than 1 billion single-use bags in 2023 after passing the Plastic Pollution Reduction Act in 2021 where major retailers, those with at least 4 locations, had to charge 10 cents for ever plastic or paper bag. Measures in 2024 includes banning retailers from offering single-use plastic bags and food venues from offering styrofoam containers after supplies have been used up.
Washington state banned the retail store sale and restaurant from using EPS foam products. Violations carry a $250 fine for first offence and $1000 for each subsequent offence. In Seattle they have been banned for over a decade.
In California a law was approved banning grocery and convenience stores from offering customers reusable plastic bags. It previously enacted a ban for single-use plastic bags, but legislators felt it did not go far enough. Stores can still offer paper bags or bags made by at least 50% post-consumer recycled materials for a 10-cent fee.
New York state banned plastic bags in 2020 causing retailers to offer reusable bags. A study funded by the American Recyclable Plastic Bag Alliance found bag volumes decreased but plastic consumption tripled. Another study showed that the amount of bags in the waste stream decreased 50%.
In 2018 the government of Pacific Island nation Vanuatu banned the sale and distribution of certain single-use plastics in response to the islands excessive amount of waste. Island nations often struggle from poor, or no, recycling or waste facilities and high reliance on imported goods, which arrive in plastic packaging. Now food is served in wrapped banana leaves and now banned items make up less than 2% of Vanuatu’s waste compared with 35% before.
But implementation has not gone smooth everywhere. The Hong Kong scheme proposed in 2004 and passed by the legislature in 2021 was postponed shortly after its launch in April 2024 due to public resistance. It banned the sale of plastic food and drink containers for dine-in customers and the sale of many disposable plastic products in hotels.
Sushi sold in supermarkets, traditionally with transparent packaging, were equipped with paper lids causing consumers to refer to them as sushi blind boxes, as they were unable to assess the quality visually. Confusion then soared when the environment ministry clarified that supermarkets could still package sushi in plastic for dine-in customers because the products were considered take-away items.
Meanwhile a singer-songwriter Subyub Lee’s Instagram reel song lamenting the uselessness of the paper soup spoon went viral with more than 1.2MM views in one month.
Here's a list of additional cities and countries and their initiatives to tackle plastic waste.
Scientists
In 2001 a group of Japanese microbiologists, led by Kohei Oda, discovered a bacteria, Ideonella Sakaiensis, that ate plastic. But this was 3 years before the term microplastic was termed so their discovery wasn't published until 2016. Since then scientists have discovered many more microorganisms able to break it down, in addition to fungi, aglae and mealworms. 2024 microbiologists discovered the 4th fungi able to break down plastic, Parengyodontium album, which degrades PE, the most common plastic in our oceans, during their research at the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP). Professor Julie Goddard and her food science research team from Cornell University has engineered enzymes which break down microplastics from PET in sewage and wastewater. Professor Kevin Schug at The University of Texas at Arlington (UTA) and his team are researching how to use pyrolysis to break down plastics. Unlike many other processes this does not require plastics to be sorted into similar types. Chemical enginers from the University of Bath in the UK and Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Massachusetts also used pyrolysis to break down polystyren effectively.
2 teens from Texas, Victoria Ou and Justin Huang, won $50,000 for inventing a device that can filter toxic microplastics from water at the 2024 Regeneron International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF) in Los Angeles. A team of researchers from the University of Copenhagen has developed a so called biocomposit material made from barley starch blended with fiber from sugarbeet waste which turns into compost should it end up in nature.
Recyclers
Greyparrot specializes in AI for waste sorting. In February 2024 it announced a partnership with Bollegraaf, the world's largest builder of recycling plants to retrofit 1000s of recycling plants with its solution to improve waste sorting. By connecting the AI with robots it can improve the accuracy of the sorting which makes the recycled material more valuable.
But even for consumers keen to recycle it isn’t always working. In Australia an industry-led recycling program REDcycle collapsed in 2022 leaving supermarket chains Coles and Woolworths with more than 5,000 tonnes of stockpiled soft plastics. Now consumers don't have any nationwide solution for returning plastic waste for recycling and the 20% recycled packaging rates falling well short of the 2025 mandated 70% target.
Non-profits
Many hands make light work but when it comes to collecting plastic waste there can’t be too many. So it is encouraging to see many non-profit organizations employing sophisticated technology to collect waste in the oceans or land funded through donations and government programs.
The Ocean Cleanup which focuses on oceans and rivers, recently received $15MM funding from the Helmsley Charitable Trust. This Ocean Cleanup video shows its methods and progress. Berlin based Cleanhub employs locals providing them with dignified jobs to collect plastic from 10 cities around the world.
Brand owners
Pepsico announced that it replaced the plastic rings on its beverage multipacks with paper in the US and Canada. Packaging company WestRrock announced it's innovation CanCollar which replaces the plastic wrapper for 6-packs with a fiber-based solution that uses 95% less plastic. Apple decided to eliminate all plastic from its packaging by 2025 but it is so optimistic to finish ahead of time that it now aims for end of 2024 instead.
One negative development has been the increased use of small plastic sachets popular in low and middle-income countries due to their low cost and Tingi culture. Companies like Unilever, Nestle and Procter & Gamble are mentioned as the biggest perpetrators.
Entrepreneurs
Many innovators are looking to produce and sell bioplastics, e.g. plastics that are either biodegradable or made from non-fossil fuel feedstocks, or both. This is a topic of contention since we lack clear global definition of what constitutes biodegradable plastics leading to consumer confusion and greenwashing.
Examples of plastics that are both biodegradable and made from bio-based feedstock are PLA, PHA, and PBS first developed in the 1920s and 30s. Mango Materials is a US company started in 2012 using microbes to convert methane waste into PLA. Invisible Company sells bags that completely break down in water. Indonesian Ecoware produces biodegradable food packaging. Cabinet health, with an impressive pitch on Shark Tank, replaces wasteful plastic medicine bottles with biodegradable puches and a single bottle made from 100% recyclable material. Natural Fiber Welding (NFW) creates natural performance materials to replace common plastic end-uses. Greenhope makes biodegradable plastics from cassava strach. Papkot has developed a ceramic coating that can equip paper with the same properties of plastics, with no plastic. Sulapac has created containers for the cosmetics industry which breaks down completely. UBQ Materials turn hetrogeneous household waste into pellets used to make recycled plastic.
Some innovations have built established new marketplaces. RePurpose Global has created a plastic credit platform, inspired by carbon credits markets, to connect brands and individuals with a marketplace where they can fund the collection and recycling of the plastic waste they produce. Plastic Bank has created a similar marketplace connecting companies and individuals to those who collect waste.
How can we protect ourselves from plastics?
I'm reminded by the words of my microeconomics professor Brett Saraniti.
“As consumers we vote every day, through our purchases, what ideas and companies should win.”
Brett Saraniti
Plastic is used to make clothes, toothpaste, and pillows so pick it where it makes sense. Since even bottled water comes with an abundance of plastic matter, filter your water and drink and eat from inert materials like glass, metal or ceramics. Don’t stick plastic containers in the microwave or the dishwasher where heat cause leakage and degredation.
If you live in the US or Canada and want to improve your awareness of the plastic used in your favorite foods you can check out Yuka's mobile app which will also give you a rating of how nutritious and eco-friendly your product is.
If you are more ambitious join a movement! Plastic Free July by Plastic Free Foundation was started by Rebecca Prince-Ruiz 2011 in Western Australia and is inspiring people all over the world to make choices to reduce plastic use.
As the King of Pop proclaimed after seeing a broken bottle top, change starts with the man, or woman, in the mirror. No matter how sustainable the solution, if it needs energy and material to produce, it pollutes. So be mindful of your consumption and do more with less, re-use what you can, and look for natural materials.
For more tips check out this excellent article on how to reduce plastic exposure.
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